The Republic of India is a South Asian country that comprises a major portion of the Indian subcontinent. It has a coastline of over seven thousand kilometres, borders Pakistan to the west, the People's Republic of China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. On the Indian Ocean, it is adjacent to three island nations — the Maldives to the southwest, Sri Lanka to the south, and Indonesia to the southeast. India also claims a border with Afghanistan to the northwest.
The name India 'ɪndiə is derived from the Old Persian version of Sindhu, the historic local name for the Indus river (see Origin of India's name). The Constitution of India and common usage also recognise Bharat ( Hindi: भारत /bʰɑːrət̪/ listen ( help· info)) as an official name of equal status. This name is derived from the Sanskrit name of an ancient Hindu king whose story can be found in the Mahabharata epic poem. A third name, Hindustan ( Hindi: हिन्दुस्तान hin̪d̪ust̪ɑːn) listen ( help· info) ( Persian: Land of the Hindus / Land to the west of the Indus) has been used since the twelfth century AD, though its contemporary use is unevenly applied due to domestic disputes by some over its representation as a national signifier.
India is the fourth largest economy in the world by purchasing power parity, and the tenth largest by absolute GNP. It is the second most populous country, with a population of over one billion, and the seventh largest by geographical area. It is home to the Indus Valley Civilisation — one of the most ancient civilizations in recorded history — and a centre of important historic trade routes. Four major world religions — Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism — have Indian origins. India was a part of the British Empire before gaining independence in 1947. In the last twenty years, it has grown significantly, especially in the economic and military spheres.
History
Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in present-day India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago, and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which began around 3300 BC and peaked between 2600 BC and 1900 BC. It was followed by the Vedic Civilisation. From around 550 BC, many independent kingdoms came into being.
In the north, the Maurya dynasty, which included Aşoka The Great, contributed greatly to India's cultural landscape. From 180 BC, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed. This led to the establishment of the Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian kingdoms in the northern Indian Subcontinent, and finally the Kushan Empire. From the 3rd century AD, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's "Golden Age".
In the south, several dynasties, including the Chalukyas, Cheras, Cholas, Kadambas, Pallavas and Pandyas prevailed during different periods. Science, engineering, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings.
The Sanchi stupa in Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh built by emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC
Following the Islamic invasions from Central Asia and Persia in the beginning of the second millennium AD, much of north and central India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and later the Mughal dynasty, who gradually expanded their reign to much of the Indian subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms flourished, especially in the relatively sheltered south, one of which was the Vijayanagara Empire.
During mid-second millennium AD, several European countries, including Portugal, Netherlands, France and the United Kingdom, who initially wanted to trade with India, took advantage of the fractured kingdoms fighting each other, to establish colonies in the country. An 1857 insurrection against the British East India Company failed, known locally as the First War of Indian Independence, and in British and some Western literature as the Indian Mutiny, Sepoy Mutiny or Sepoy Rebellion. After it was put down, much of India came under the direct administrative control of the crown of the British Empire.
In the early 20th century, the prolonged, non-violent struggle for independence was led by Mahatma Gandhi, widely regarded as the "Father Of The Nation". The struggle culminated on 1947- 08-15, when India gained full independence from British rule, and became a republic on 1950- 01-26.
As a multi-ethnic and multi-religious nation, India has had some sectarian violence and insurgencies in various parts of the country, but has stayed together as a vibrant democracy. It has unresolved border disputes with China (which escalated into the brief Sino-Indian War in 1962), and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971 and in 1999 in Kargil (at the northern fringe of Jammu and Kashmir State). India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test, making it an unofficial member of the " nuclear club". This was followed by a series of five more tests in Operation Shakti in 1998. Significant economic reforms beginning in 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, and added to its global and regional clout.
GovernmentNational symbols of IndiaFlag TirangaEmblem Sarnath LionAnthem listen ( help· info) Jana Gana ManaSong Vandē MātaramAnimal Royal Bengal TigerBird Indian PeacockFlower LotusTree BanyanFruit MangoSport Field HockeyCalendar Saka
India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. The Constitution of India, which came into force on 26th January 1950, is the supreme law of the land. India has a federal form of government (with a high degree of centralization) and a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has three branches of governance: the Legislature, Executive and Judiciary.
For the Union government of India, the President is the head of state, and has a largely ceremonial role, including interpreting the constitution, signing laws into action, issuing administrative orders and issuing pardons. He is also the Commander-in-Chief of India's armed forces. The President is elected indirectly by an electoral college for five-year terms, consisting of the members of Parliament and of all the state Legislative Assemblies in a very complicated scheme. The Prime Minister is the head of government, and has most executive powers. He or she is appointed by the President. As a general rule and rather a very strict convention, the President appoints only that person as the Prime Minister who enjoys the support of the majority of the members in the Lok Sabha (the lower house of the Parliament), and serves a five-year term, with re-selection possible. The constitution does not explicitly provide for a post of Deputy Prime Minister, but this option has been exercised from time to time.
The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament (Sansad), which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States), and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People). The 245-member Rajya Sabha is chosen indirectly through the state Legislative Assemblies, and has a staggered six-year term. Each state sends members to the Rajya Sabha in a proportion of its population (unlike the Senate of the United States). The 545-member Lok Sabha is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term, and is the determinative constituent of political power and government formation. All Indian citizens above age 18 are eligible to vote. The Lok Sabha is subject to dissolution by the President but the Rajya Sabha is not.
The executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet being its executive comittee), headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature. All ministers are appointed and dismissed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. The President is bound to follow the advice of the Council of Ministers while making any executive decision or order, but may ask the Council to reconsider its decision once.
India's independent judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India—all appointed by the President. The Supreme Court has both original jurisdiction over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts of India. Each of these states has a tiered system of lower courts. The Supreme Court has the right to declare laws and orders passed by the government as null and void if they are in conflict with the Constitution. Impeachment of the President and the judges of the Supreme Court requires a two-thirds majority in each house of the Parliament. Removal of the Prime Minister requires a simple majority in the Lok Sabha.
The federating states (rajya) of India have a governor as the titular head of the province, a Chief Minister as the real head of the government (with his council of ministers) and a directly-elected Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly) to which he is responsible, and optionally an upper house Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council). The highest court of a state is its High court, whose judges are appointed by the President and not by the governor. There are 18 appellate High Courts, each having jurisdiction over a state or a group of smaller states. No state has its own Constitution except Jammu and Kashmir. No state has a separate citizenship (in Jammu and Kashmir, there is a constitutional provision of permanent resident of the state).
